The Chemical Foundation of Life
Water’s Solvent Properties
Water’s Cohesive and Adhesive Properties
pH, Buffers, Acids, and Bases
Hydrocarbons
Isomers
Functional Groups
Biological Macromolecules
Dehydration Synthesis
Hydrolysis
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
Benefits of Carbohydrates
Registered Dietitian
Fats and Oils
Omega Fatty Acids
Phospholipids
Types and Functions of Proteins
Amino Acids
Primary Structure of Protein
Secondary Structure of Protein
Tertiary Structure of Protein
Denaturation and Protein Folding
DNA and RNA
DNA Double-Helix Structure
RNA
Trans Fat
Steroids
The Evolutionary Significance of Cytochrome c
The Cell
Light Microscopes
Electron Microscopes
Cytotechnologist
Components of Prokaryotic Cells
Cell Size
The Plasma Membrane
Mitochondria
Chloroplasts
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
Microfilaments
The Golgi Apparatus
Flagella and Cilia
Ribosomes
Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells
Intercellular Junctions
Microbiologist
The Nucleus
Animal Cells versus Plant Cells
Endosymbiosis
Cardiologist
Geneticist
Microtubules
Intermediate Filaments
Structure and Function of Plasma Membrane
Fluid Mosaic Model
Phospholipids
Proteins
How Viruses Infect Specific Organs
Immunologist
Selective Permeability
Diffusion
Channel Proteins
Carrier Protein
Osmosis
Tonicity
Tonicity in Living Systems
Carbohydrates
Electrochemical Gradient
Primary Active Transport
Secondary Active Transport (Co-transport)
Phagocytosis
Membrane Fluidity
Pinocytosis
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis
Metabolism
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Metabolic Pathways
Anabolic and Catabolic Pathways
Free Energy
Energy Types
Endergonic Reactions and Exergonic Reactions
Activation Energy
The First Law of Thermodynamics
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate
Enzymes
Molecular Regulation of Enzymes
Drug Discovery
Feedback Inhibition in Metabolic Pathways
Induced Fit and Enzyme Function
Cellular Respiration
Electron Carriers
ATP Structure and Function
Glycolysis
First Half of Glycolysis (Energy-Requiring Steps)
Second Half of Glycolysis (Energy-Releasing Steps)
Outcomes of Glycolysis
Breakdown of Pyruvate
Citric Acid Cycle
Electron Transport Chain
Chemiosmosis
Lactic Acid Fermentation
Alcohol Fermentation
Carbohydrate, Protein, Lipid Metabolic Pathways
Pathways of Photosynthesis and Cellular Metabolism
Regulatory Mechanisms of Cellular Respiration
Glycolysis
Main Structures and Summary of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Basic Photosynthetic Structures
The Two Parts of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis at the Grocery Store
Understanding Pigments
How Light-Dependent Reactions Work
The Calvin Cycle
Evolution of Photosynthesis
Absorption of Light
The Energy Cycle
Cell Communication
Forms of Chemical Signaling
Intracellular or Cytoplasmic Receptors
Cell-Surface Receptors
Signaling Molecules
Binding Initiates a Signaling Pathway
Methods of Intracellular Signaling
Gene Expression
Cell Death
Cellular Communication in Yeasts
Cell Reproduction
Genomic DNA
Eukaryotic Chromosomal Structure and Compaction
The Cell Cycle
Regulation at Internal Checkpoints in Cell Cycle
Positive Regulation of the Cell Cycle
Negative Regulation of the Cell Cycle
Tumor Suppressor Genes
Binary Fission
Mitotic Spindle Apparatus
Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
Meiosis I
Meiosis II
Comparing Meiosis and Mitosis
Life Cycles of Sexually Reproducing Organisms
Mendel’s Experiments and Heredity
Mendelian Crosses
Garden Pea Characteristics Revealed the Basics of Heredity
Who is the Father of Genetics?
Phenotypes and Genotypes
The Punnett Square Approach for a Monohybrid Cross
The Multiple Alleles
Multiple Alleles Confer Drug Resistance in the Malaria Parasite
The X-Linked Traits
The Product Rule and Sum Rule in Genetics
The Test Cross Distinguishes the Dominant Phenotype
Lethality
Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment
Mendel’s Forked-Line Method
Linked Genes Violate the Law of Independent Assortment
Epistasis
Modern Understanding of Inheritance
The Genetic Maps
Chromosome Identification
Karyograms to Identify Chromosomal Aberrations
Chromosome Number Disorders
Aneuploidy
Sex Chromosome Nondisjunction in Humans
The Chromosome 18 Inversion
DNA Structure and Function
Historical Basis of DNA’s Modern Understanding
DNA Structure and Sequencing
DNA Sequencing Techniques
Neanderthal Genome: How Are We Related?
DNA Packaging in Cells
Basics of DNA Replication
DNA Replication in Prokaryotes
The DNA Replication in Eukaryotes
Telomere Replication
The Central Dogma: DNA Encodes RNA; RNA Encodes Protein
The Genetic Code Is Degenerate and Universal
Prokaryotic Transcription
Which Has More DNA: Kiwi or Strawberry?
Initiation of Transcription in Prokaryotes
Prokaryotic Termination Signals
The Three Eukaryotic RNA Polymerases
The Three Eukaryotic RNA Polymerases
RNA Polymerase II Promoters and Transcription Factors
The mRNA Processing
DNA Repair
Processing of tRNAs and rRNAs
Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis
The Mechanism of Protein Synthesis
Gene Expression
Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic Gene Expression
The trp Operon: A Repressible Operon
Catabolite Activator Protein (CAP): A Transcriptional Activator
The lac Operon: An Inducible Operon
Epigenetic Control
The Promoter and the Transcription Machinery
Eukaryotic Enhancers and Transcription
Alternative RNA Splicing
Control of RNA Stability
Chemical Modifications, Protein Activity, and Longevity
Cancer and Gene Regulation
Biotechnology and Genomics
DNA and RNA Extraction
Nucleic Acid Fragment Amplification by Polymerase Chain Reaction
The Molecular Cloning
Genetic Diagnosis and Gene Therapy
Production of Vaccines, Antibiotics, and Hormones
Transgenic Plants
Transformation of Plants Using Agrobacterium tumefaciens
The Genetic Maps
Whole-Genome Sequencing
Applying Genomics
Genomics and Proteomics
Basic Techniques in Protein Analysis
Cancer Proteomics
Reproductive Cloning
Evolution and the Origin of Species
Charles Darwin and Natural Selection
Field Biologist
Processes and Patterns of Evolution
Evidence of Evolution
Misconceptions of Evolution
Species and the Ability to Reproduce
What is Speciation?
Allopatric Speciation
Adaptive Radiation
Sympatric Speciation
Reproductive Isolation
Habitat Influence on Speciation
Varying Rates of Speciation
Reconnection After Speciation
The Evolution of Populations
Population Genetics
Hardy-Weinberg Principle of Equilibrium
Genetic Variance
Genetic Drift
Environmental Variance
Frequency-Dependent Selection
What is Sexual Selection?
Phylogenies and the History of Life
Phylogenetic Trees
Limitations of Phylogenetic Trees
Taxonomic Classification Levels
Misleading Appearances Among Organisms
Why Does Phylogeny Matter?
Building Phylogenetic Trees
Horizontal Gene Transfer in Prokaryotes
Horizontal Gene Transfer in Eukaryotes
Genome Fusion and Eukaryote Evolution
Phylogenetic Ring of Life Models
Viruses
Discovery and Detection of Virus
Evolution of Viruses
Viral Morphology
Virus Past Systems of Classification
The Baltimore Classification System
Steps of Virus Infections
Bacteriophages
Plant Viruses
Animal Viruses
Vaccines and Antiviral Drugs for Treatment
The Prions
Viroids
Virologist
Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea
Microbial Mats
Microbes Are Adaptable
Unculturable Prokaryotes
The Ecology of Biofilms
The Prokaryotic Cell
The Cell Wall of Prokaryotes
The Reproduction in Prokaryotes
The Evolution of Prokaryotes
The Needs of Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes and the Carbon Cycle Prokaryotes and the Nitrogen Cycle
The Bubonic Plagues
Emerging and Re-emerging Diseases
Biofilms and Disease
Antibiotics: Are We Facing a Crisis?
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
Epidemiologist
Microbes on the Human Body
Early Biotechnology: Cheese, Bread, Wine, Beer, and Yogurt
Cooperation between Bacteria and Eukaryotes: Nitrogen Fixation
The Foodborne Diseases
Using Prokaryotes to Clean up Our Planet: Bioremediation
Protists
Characteristics of Eukaryotes
The Mitochondria
Plastids
Secondary Endosymbiosis in Chlorarachniophytes
Protists Metabolism
Protist Life Cycles
Green Algae: Chlorophytes and Charophytes
Slime Molds
What is Opisthokonta?
The Rhizaria
Alveolates: Dinoflagellates, Apicomplexians, and Ciliates
Stramenopiles
The Excavata
The Primary Producers of Food
The Plasmodium Species
Trypanosomes
Plant Parasites
Fungi
Fungi Cell Structure and Function
Fungi Growth
Fungi Nutrition
Fungi Reproduction
Fungi Asexual Reproduction
Fungi Sexual Reproduction
Chytridiomycota: The Chytrids
Zygomycota: The Conjugated Fungi
Ascomycota: The Sac Fungi
Basidiomycota: The Club Fungi
Asexual Ascomycota and Basidiomycota
Glomeromycota
Fungi as Decomposers and Recyclers
Fungus/Plant Mutualism
Coevolution of Land Plants and Mycorrhizae
Lichens
Fungus/Animal Mutualism
Plant Parasites and Pathogens
Animal and Human Parasites and Pathogens
The Importance of Fungi in Human Life
Dutch Elm Disease
Seedless Plants
Algae and Evolutionary Paths to Photosynthesis
Plant Adaptations to Life on Land
Alternation of Plant Generations
Sporangia in Seedless Plants
Evolution of Land Plants
Paleobotanist
Charophytes
Bryophytes
Streptophytes
Liverworts
Hornworts
Mosses
Vascular Tissue: Xylem and Phloem
Phylum Lycopodiophyta: Club Mosses
Phylum Monilophyta: Class Equisetopsida (Horsetails)
Phylum Monilophyta: Class Polypodiopsida (True Ferns)
Landscape Designer
The Importance of Seedless Plants
Seed Plants
The Evolution of Gymnosperms
Seeds and Pollen as an Evolutionary Adaptation to Dry Land
The Evolution of Angiosperms
Flowers and Fruits as an Evolutionary Adaptation
Building Phylogenetic Trees
Gymnosperms
The Life Cycle of a Conifer
The Diversity of Gymnosperms
The Life Cycle of an Angiosperm
The Diversity of Angiosperms
The Flowers
The Fruit
Animals and Plants: Herbivory
Animals and Plants: Pollination
Testing Attraction of Flies by Rotting Flesh Smell
The Importance of Seed Plants in Human Life
Biodiversity of Plants
Ethnobotanist
Introduction to Animal Diversity
Complex Tissue Structure of Animals
Processes of Animal Reproduction and Embryonic Development
The Role of Homeobox (Hox) Genes in Animal Development
Animal Characterization: Body Symmetry
Animal Characterization: Embryological Development
Presence or Absence of a Coelom
Embryonic Development of the Animal’s Mouth
The Evolution of the Coelom
Constructing an Animal Phylogenetic Tree
Modern Advances in Phylogenetic Understanding
The Cambrian Explosion of Animal Life
The Pre-Cambrian Animal Life
Post-Cambrian Evolution and Mass Extinctions
Invertebrates
The Morphology of Sponges
Physiological Processes in Sponges
Phylum Cnidaria
The Class Anthozoa The Class Scyphozoa
The Class Cubozoa
The Class Hydrozoa
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Physiological Processes of Flatworms
Diversity of Flatworms
Phylum Rotifera
Phylum Nemertea
Phylum Mollusca
Classification of Phylum Mollusca
Phylum Annelida
Classification of Phylum Annelida
Phylum Nematoda
Phylum Tardigrada
Phylum Arthropoda
Phylum Arthropoda Morphology
Subphylum Chelicerata
Subphylum Myriapoda
Subphylum Crustacea
Subphylum Hexapoda
Superphylum Deuterostomia
Phylum Echinodermata
C. elegans: Linking Developmental Studies
Parasitic Nematodes
Classes of Echinoderms
Vertebrates
The Characteristics of Chordata
Urochordata
Subphylum Vertebrata (Craniata)
Jawless Fishes: Superclass Agnatha
Class Myxini: Hagfishes
Cephalochordata
Class Petromyzontida: Lampreys
Gnathostomes: Jawed Fishes
Class Chondrichthyes: Cartilaginous Fishes
Osteichthyes: Bony Fishes
Characteristics of Amphibians
Evolution of Amphibians
Urodela: Salamanders
Anura: Frogs
The Characteristics of Amniotes
The Paleozoic Era and the Evolution of Vertebrates
The Evolution of Amniotes
The Characteristics of Reptiles
The Evolution of Reptiles
Archosaurs: Dinosaurs
Archosaurs: Pterosaurs
Squamata
Testudines
The Characteristics of Birds
The Evolution of Birds
The Evolution of Flight in Birds
Veterinarian
The Characteristics of Mammals
The Evolution of Mammals
The Living Mammals
The Characteristics of Primates
The Evolution of Primates
Human Evolution
The Very Early Hominins
Early Hominins: Genus Homo
Early Hominins: Genus Australopithecus
Humans: Homo sapiens
Plant Form and Physiology
The Plant Stem
The Plant Tissues
The Plant’s Stem Anatomy
Growth in Plant Stems
The Plant Vascular Tissue
Plant Stem Modifications
Plant Root Growth and Anatomy
Plant Root Modifications
The Structure of a Typical Leaf
The Leaf Structure and Function
Plant Adaptations in Resource-Deficient Environments
Water Potential of Plants
Solute Potential of Plants
Pressure Potential of Plants
Movement of Water and Minerals in the Xylem
Control of Transpiration in Plants
Transportation of Photosynthates in the Phloem
Translocation in Plants: Transport from Source to Sink
Plant Responses to Light
The Phytochrome System and the Red/Far-Red Response
Horticulturalist
The Blue Light Responses
Plant Responses to Gravity
Plant Growth Responses
Plant Responses to Wind and Touch
Defense Responses against Herbivores and Pathogens
Soil and Plant Nutrition
The Chemical Composition of Plants
Plant Macronutrients and Micronutrients
Soil Composition
Physical Properties of the Soil
Soil Scientist
Nitrogen Fixation: Root and Bacteria Interactions
Mycorrhizae: The Symbiotic Relationship between Fungi and Roots
Plant Nutrients from Other Sources
Plant Reproduction
The Flower Structure
Male Gametophyte (The Pollen Grain)
Female Gametophyte (The Embryo Sac)
Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms
Pollination
Pollination by Insects
Pollination by Deception
Double Fertilization in Plants
Development of the Plant Seed
Seed Germination
Development of Fruit and Fruit Types
Fruit and Seed Dispersal
Asexual Reproduction
Artificial Methods of Asexual Reproduction
Plant Life Spans
The Animal Body: Basic Form and Function
Physical Anthropologist
The Limits on Animal Size and Shape
Animal Bioenergetics
Animal Body Planes and Cavities
Animal Epithelial Tissues
Animal Connective Tissues
The Animal Cartilage
Animal Bones
Animal Blood
Animal Muscle Tissues
Animal Endotherms and Ectotherms
Animal Heat Conservation and Dissipation
Neural Control of Thermoregulation
Animal Nutrition and the Digestive System
Herbivores, Omnivores, and Carnivores
Invertebrate Digestive Systems
Vertebrate Digestive Systems
The Oral Cavity
Esophagus
Stomach
Small Intestine
Accessory Organs of the Digestive System
Organic Precursors
Essential Nutrients
Food Energy and ATP
Obesity
The Digestion of Carbohydrates
Lipid Digestion
Protein Digestion
The Digestive Phases
Hormonal Responses to Food
The Nervous System
The Parts of a Neuron
Types of Neurons
Neurogenesis
Glia
Neuron Resting Membrane Potential
Neuron Action Potential
Synaptic Transmission
Brain-Computer Interface
Synaptic Plasticity
The Central Nervous System
Spinal Cord
Sympathetic Nervous System
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Sensory-Somatic Nervous System
Alzheimer’s Disease
Parkinson’s Disease
Autism
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Depression
Mental Illnesses
Epilepsy
Stroke
Schizophrenia
Neurologist
Sensory Sytems
Transduction Function of the Sensory System
Perception
Somatosensation
Somatosensory Receptors
Pain
Tastes and Odors
Reception and Transduction
Pheromones
Taste
Sound
Transduction of Sound
Vestibular Information
Anatomy of the Eye
Light
Transduction of Light
Trichromatic Coding
Retinal Processing
Vision Higher Processing
The Endocrine System
Endocrinologist
Intracellular Hormone Receptors
Plasma Membrane Hormone Receptors
Hormonal Regulation of the Excretory System
The Dangers of Synthetic Hormones
Regulation of the Female Reproductive System
Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels by Thyroid Hormones
Hormonal Control of Blood Calcium Levels
Hormonal Regulation of Growth
Fight-or-Flight Response
Hormonal Regulation of Stress
Regulation of Hormone Production
Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis
Anterior Pituitary Gland
Posterior Pituitary Gland
Thyroid Gland
Parathyroid Glands
Adrenal Glands
Pancreas
Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions
The Musculuskeletal System
Hydrostatic Skeleton
Exoskeleton
Endoskeleton
The Skull
The Vertebral Column
The Thoracic Cage
The Pectoral Girdle
The Upper Limb
The Pelvic Girdle
The Lower Limb
Evolution of Body Design for Locomotion on Land
Bones
Compact Bone Tissue
Spongy Bone Tissue
Endochondral Ossification
Bone Remodeling and Repair
Fibrous Joints
The Movement at Synovial Joints
Types of Synovial Joints
Rheumatologist
Types of Muscle Tissue
Skeletal Muscle Fiber Structure
Sliding Filament Model of Contraction
ATP and Muscle Contraction
Excitation–Contraction Coupling
Control of Muscle Tension
The Respiratory System
Animal Gills
Insect Tracheal Systems
Mammalian Systems
Lungs: Bronchi and Alveoli
Respiratory System Protective Mechanisms
Gas Pressure and Respiration
Lung Volumes and Capacities
Gas Exchange Across the Alveoli
Avian Respiration
The Mechanics of Human Breathing
The Work of Breathing
Surfactant
Lung Resistance and Compliance
Dead Space: V/Q Mismatch
Hemoglobin
Factors That Affect Oxygen Binding
Transport of Carbon Dioxide in the Blood
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
The Circulatory System
Circulatory System Architecture
Circulatory System Variation in Animals
Red Blood Cells
White Blood Cells
Platelets and Coagulation Factors
Blood Types Related to Proteins
The Cardiac Cycle
Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries
How Blood Flows Through the Body
Plasma and Serum
Structure of the Heart
Blood Circulation Diversity in Vertebrates
Blood Pressure
Osmotic Regulation and Excretion
Osmoregulation
The Need for Osmoregulation
Transport of Electrolytes Across Cell Membranes
Osmoregulators and Osmoconformers
Dialysis Technician
Kidney Structure
Kidney Function and Physiology
Kidney Tubular Re-absorption and Secretion
Nephrologist
Flame Cells of Planaria and Nephridia of Worms
Malpighian Tubules of Insects
Nitrogenous Waste in Terrestrial Animals: The Urea Cycle
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone
The Immune System
Body Physical and Chemical Barriers
Pathogen Recognition
Cytokine Release Effect
Phagocytosis and Inflammation
Natural Killer Cells
The Complement System
Antigen-Presenting Cells
B Lymphocytes
T and B Lymphocytes
Helper T Lymphocytes
Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes
Mucosal Surfaces and Immune Tolerance
Immunological Memory
Vaccinologist
Primary Centers of the Immune System
The Antibody Structure
The Antibody Classes
Antibody Functions
Affinity, Avidity, and Cross Reactivity
Allergies
Autoimmunity
Animal Reproduction and Development
Asexual Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
Animal External Fertilization
Animal Internal Fertilization
The Evolution of Reproduction
Male Reproductive Anatomy
Female Reproductive Anatomy
Sexual Response During Intercourse
Spermatogenesis
Oogenesis
Male Hormones
Female Hormones
The Ovarian Cycle and the Menstrual Cycle
Menopause
Reproductive Endocrinologist
Human Gestation
Labor and Birth
Contraception and Birth Control
Infertility
Human Fertilization
Cleavage and Blastula Stage
Gastrulation
Are Designer Babies in Our Future?
Organogenesis
Vertebrate Axis Formation
Ecology and Biosphere
Levels of Ecological Study
Organismal Ecology
Population Ecology
Community Ecology
Ecosystem Ecology
Ecologist
Biogeography
Energy Sources
The Effect of Temperature on Living Organisms
The Importance of Water to the Terrestrial Organism
Abiotic Factors Influencing Plant Growth
Tropical Wet Forest
Subtropical Deserts
Temperate Grasslands
Temperate Forests
Boreal Forests
Arctic Tundra
Abiotic Factors Influencing Aquatic Biomes
Ocean
Coral Reefs
Global Decline of Coral Reefs
Estuaries: Where the Ocean Meets Fresh Water
Lakes and Ponds
Wetlands
Rivers and Streams
Climate and Weather
Current and Past Drivers of Global Climate Change
Population and Community Ecology
Population Size and Density
Population Research Methods
Species Distribution
Demography
Parental Care and Fecundity
The Survivorship Curves
Single versus Multiple Reproductive Events
Drosophila Research
Population Exponential Growth
Carrying Capacity and the Logistic Model
Density-Dependent Regulation
Why Did the Woolly Mammoth Go Extinct?
Life Histories of K-selected and r-selected Species
Human Population Growth
Age Structure, Population Growth, and Economic Development
Consequences Human Population Growth
Predation and Herbivory
Defense Mechanisms Against Predation and Herbivory
Competitive Exclusion Principle
Symbiosis
Characteristics of Communities
Invasive Species
Community Dynamics
Innate Behaviors: Movement and Migration
Communication within a Species
Altruistic Behaviors
Finding Sex Partners in Animal Kingdom
Conditioned Behavior
Cognitive Learning
Ecosystem
The Ecology of Ecosystems
Food Chains and Food Webs
Three-Spined Stickleback
Research into Ecosystem Dynamics
How Organisms Acquire Energy in a Food Web
Productivity Within Trophic Levels
The Transfer of Energy Between Trophic Levels
Modeling Ecosystems Energy Flow: Ecological Pyramids
Consequences of Food Webs: Biological Magnification
The Biogeochemical Cycles
The Water (Hydrologic) Cycle
The Carbon Cycle
The Nitrogen Cycle
The Phosphorus Cycle
The Chesapeake Bay
The Sulfur Cycle
Conservation Biology and Biodiversity
The Biodiversity Crisis
Types of Biodiversity
Current Species Diversity
Patterns of Biodiversity
Biodiversity Change Through Geological Time
The Five Mass Extinctions
The Pleistocene Extinction
Estimates of Present-Time Extinction Rates
The Holocene Extinction
Human Health
The Agricultural Diversity
Wild Food Sources
Animal Habitat Loss
Preventing Habitat Destruction with Wise Wood Choices
Overharvesting of Resources
Exotic Species
Climate Change
Measuring Biodiversity
Changing Human Behavior
Conservation of Wildlife and Ecosystem Preserves
Habitat Restoration
The Role of Captive Breeding
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